NATIONAL OVERVIEW: STATUS AND POTENTIAL OF U.S. LIVING MARINE
RESOURCES


INTRODUCTION

	The LTPY of all fishery resources fished by the United States
(Table 1) is estimated at 9.5 million metric tons (t). The Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates the
limit of the world's annually sustainable yield of marine and
freshwater fish at about 100 million t. Therefore, the long-term
potential harvest from all fisheries involving the United States
exceeds 9% of the total world potential. LTPY includes not only
fishery resources within the U.S. EEZ but also transboundary stocks
off U.S. coasts and fishery resources exploited by the United
States on the high seas and in the EEZ's of other nations (e.g.,
the South Pacific tuna fishery). Therefore, the potential yield
obtainable from good management practices would not accrue solely
to the United States.
	LTPY and CPY cannot simply be divided between U.S. and foreign
fisheries because as abundance changes, the U.S. share may change
disproportionately. However, if the LTPY was prorated between the
United States and foreign countries based on recent shares of the
reported U.S. catch, the  prorated U.S. LTPY  would be about 7.4
million t, or 78% of the total LTPY. Most of this difference comes
from the Atlantic and Pacific highly migratory pelagic fisheries
(Units 5 and 18).
	The geographical distribution of the potential yield (Appendix 5)
shows that the Alaska region dominates in the tonnage that could be
obtained in the long term (Fig. 3). The picture is somewhat
different in the long-term potential revenue of the fisheries (both
foreign and domestic) derived from the total LTPY, due to the
difference in prices received for different species. Figure 3
indicates the approx-imate ex-vessel revenue if all fisheries were
harvested at their LTPY level. This estimate assumes that the
current commercial price at first sale could be maintained and that
it can also be applied to sport-caught fish. The total revenue
across all regions is estimated at $9.6 billion (this figure does
not include the U.S. nearshore fisheries in Unit 21 for lack of
data).  This year's estimate is substantially higher (+48%) due to
the addition of new fishery value (e.g., bigeye tuna in Unit 18)
and updates of previously reported ex-vessel revenues (e.g.,
Pacific salmon in Unit 13) in 1992. The Alaska region has the
highest prorated U.S. revenue (Fig. 3). Both prorated U.S. LTPY and
LTPR are shown in Figure 3, as are the U.S. share of RAY and its
recent ex-vessel revenue estimate. Note again, however, that
several important stocks are distributed across international
borders and are shared with other fishing nations. The
transboundary nature of the valuable highly migratory pelagic
species in the Atlantic and Pacific are indicated by the large
differences between the total and prorated U.S. estimates of yield
and revenue.
	The estimate of the prorated U.S. CPY is 6.6 million t or 88% of
the prorated U.S. LTPY. There are, however, important differences
among regions, species groups, and individual stocks. For example,
the prorated U.S. LTPY exceeds the prorated U.S. CPY by about 30%
or more for Atlantic coastal pelagics (Unit 7), southeast drums and
reef fish (Units 8 and 9), and Pacific coast pelagics (Unit 14).
This indicates that some of the stocks in these units are at low
levels and will need to be rebuilt before their potential can be
realized (e.g., western Pacific bottomfish in Unit 17). Prorated
U.S. CPY exceeds prorated U.S. LTPY by substantial amounts for
northeast pelagics and invertebrates (Units 2 and 4) and some
Alaska groundfish and Pacific halibut (Unit 19), indicating that
those stocks are currently above the level which would result in
LTPY. In other units, CPY and LTPY are similar. Unfortunately, for
some fisheries either CPY or LTPY or both have not yet been
estimated, and their status can only be approximated (e.g., Units
8 and 21).
	The total RAY, including recreationally-caught fish and fish from
transboundary stocks landed by other nations, is 6.6 million t. The
U.S. RAY is estimated at 4.8 million t or about 64% of the prorated
U.S. LTPY (Table 1). This is somewhat higher than the catch
reported in the NMFS publication  Fisheries of the United States. 
Some landings information obtained by NMFS scientists and included
here may be unreported in  Fisheries of the United States.  RAY
(combined commercial and recreational catches) from the fisheries
involving the United States is just under 5% of the world catch. In
recent years, the United States has ranked sixth among major
fishing nations, following China, the <%-2>former Soviet Union,
Japan, Peru, and Chile.
	The 1992 recreational marine finfish catch (including catch and
release) off the Atlantic and Gulf coasts was estimated at 285.5
million fish, of which 144.2 million fish or 105,688 t was
retained. In 1989  (the <%1>last y<%0>ear for which data are
available), the West coast recreational catch was estimated at 41
million fish or 13,000 t. This catch total is exclusive of Pacific
salmon, which historically has composed about 25% of the entire
West coast recreational catch. 
	The primary requirement for increasing U.S. fisheries to their LTPY
is to rebuild stocks that have been overutilized. Figure 4
summarizes the regional status of utilization for 231 LMR species
and/or species groups. Figure 5 shows, by region, the estimated
current stock levels relative to the level needed to support LTPY.
Across all regions, for those stock groups where the status is
known, 40% are overutilized and 42% are below the stock level
necessary to support LTPY (Fig. 6). Rebuilding these stocks would
bring fishery RAY's substantially closer to LTPY.
	There are also many cases of fully utilized stocks (43% where the
status is known) where stock abundance is near the level that
produces LTPY (45% where the level is known, Fig. 6). These stocks
need to be maintained in healthy condition. The underutilized
stocks currently at a high stock level (17% underutilized and 13%
above level needed for LTPY where known, Fig. 6), could be fished
harder to produce their long-term potential. But, several factors
should be considered when increasing fishing pressure on these
underutilized stocks:
	1) Estimates of LTPY and CPY are sometimes imprecise; therefore,
	harvest levels may be set conservatively to reduce the risk of
	depleting fishery resources.
	2) Increasing the yield will result in a reduction in abundance,
	catch rates, and size of fish, which may adversely affect some
	users of the resource (e.g., anglers who desire a high catch rate
	and/or large fish). 
	3) There are limited markets for increased landings of several
	species for which RAY is less than CPY and LTPY (e.g., dogfish off
	New England and arrowtooth flounder off Alaska).
	4) Increasing the yield may be uneconomical in terms of efficient
	utilization of investment resources.
Brief regional summaries of potential yields and the status of
fisheries resources, as well as marine mammals and sea turtles, are
given below.

NORTHEAST U.S. LMR'S

	Averaged over the three-year period ending in 1992, the fisheries
of the Northeast region (Appendix 5) contributed about 20% of the
prorated U.S. recent ex-vessel revenue and 16% of the volume (i.e.,
U.S. RAY) of the Nation's commercial fisheries (Fig. 3). Total 1992
landings of all species in the northeast were 769,667 t, with an
estimated ex-vessel revenue of $818 million. The mixed-species
groundfish fishery is the most valuable fishery of the region ($188
million), followed by American lobster ($161 million) and Atlantic
sea scallop ($152 million). Recreational fisheries for species such
as cod, winter flounder, mackerel, striped bass, bluefish, and
bluefin tuna are extremely important and contribute greatly to the
region's economy. There were approximately 19 million recreational
marine fishing trips in 1992 which produced landings of over 100
million fish.
	Northeast finfish and invertebrate fisheries have an estimated LTPY
of over 1.3 million t (including very nearshore resources such as
menhaden, blue crab, oyster, blue mussel, hard clam, etc.), or 18%
of the national LTPY. Recent annual landings of northeast resources
have only totaled about 769,600 t about half of their long-term
potential. The discrepancy between recent landings and potential
production results from significant overutilization of 18 stocks in
the region (including principal groundfish, flounders, dogfish and
others) and underutilization of 8 stocks. Stocks of Atlantic
mackerel and herring are both underutilized at present and
collectively could produce an additional 200,000 t of long-term
potential yield. Thirteen species or stocks are fully utilized.
	The mixed-species groundfish fishery may benefit from the recent
passage by the NEFMC of Amendment 5 to the FMP for the Northeast
Multispecies Fishery. This Amendment, recently approved by the
Secretary of Commerce, will limit effort by commercial fishing on
groundfish in New England and also prevent the issuance of new
vessel permits in this overcapitalized fishery. Several
overutilized New England groundfish stocks are landed by both
Canada and the United States, but Canada has recently placed severe
restrictions on its fishery to promote stock rebuilding.
(Amendment 4) to the sea scallop FMP has also been prepared by the NEFMC.
Now approved, it will control fishing effort by limiting the days at sea for each vessel
and placing a moratorium on new entrants. Along with supplementary
measures, it is intended to reduce fishing mortality and move this
fishery from overutilization to full utilization. 

SOUTHEAST U.S. LMR'S

	The combined U.S. LTPY for southeast Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and
Caribbean LMR's is estimated at about 1.2 million t (16% of the
U.S. LTPY); recent catches have run about 99% of CPY and 76% of
LTPY. Atlantic swordfish and bluefin tuna, many southeast Atlantic
snappers and groupers, and Caribbean reef fish have been
overutilized, and some stocks are at historically low levels. The
status of many other reef fish stocks is unknown, but they are
likely to be overutilized as well. Individually, these stocks are
minor portions of the catch, but, in aggregate, they have supported
important recreational and commercial fisheries. The recreationally
and commercially important coastal pelagic species (e.g.,
mackerels, dolphin fish, and cobia) yield only about 56% of their
estimated aggregate LTPY as a result of overutilization. Certain
individual stocks are severely depressed (e.g., Gulf of Mexico king
mackerel). The impact of Mexican fisheries on these stocks is not
well known but may affect stock rebuilding efforts.
	Currently, all commercially important shrimp species are producing
about their LTPY level, but these fisheries are overcapitalized,
and could produce similar yields with considerably less effort if
fishing mortality were reduced. Therefore they are classified as
overutilized. An important consequence of excessive fishing
mortality on shrimp is excessive bycatch, which adversely impacts
finfish stocks. The dominant catches are Gulf of Mexico brown,
white, and pink shrimp, which represent 89% of the total U.S.
shrimp catch. In 1991, those three species produced a total catch
of 104,361 t, valued in excess of $400 million. 

WEST COAST AND WESTERN PACIFIC LMR'S

	West coast and Pacific island fisheries (Appendix 5) account for
more than 1.1 million t  and 15% of the U.S. LTPY. These include
fisheries for tuna, billfish, and swordfish (Pacific-wide); reef
and seamount finfish and lobster (Pacific islands); and U.S. West
coast groundfish, salmon, coastal pelagic fishes, and the very
nearshore species. Management plans for stocks in Federal waters
are primarily developed by the Pacific Fisheries Management Council
(PFMC) and the Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council
(WPFMC), which may co-manage with or defer responsibility to state
agencies, tribal fisheries agencies, or international groups. 
Pacific-wide commercial tuna fisheries, foreign and domestic,
result in ex-vessel revenue estimates of about $3.6 billion, with
the U.S. tuna catch worth about $522 million. Commercial ex-vessel
revenues for Pacific salmon and groundfish are $140 million and $78
million, respectively. In addition, though more difficult to
quantify, the value of the recreational fisheries for these stocks
is substantial. 
	On the Pacific coast, including nearshore resources, most of the
stocks are fully utilized or overutilized, with only two of 38
stocks classified as underutilized (Fig. 4). In the oceanic
Pacific, eight of the 22 stocks are underutilized while the status
of seven others is unknown. 
	Salmon (Unit 12) have long been part of the cultural heritage of
the Pacific Northwest and have supported important commercial and
recreational fisheries in Washington, Oregon, and California. All
five species (chinook, coho, sockeye, pink, and chum) are
considered overutilized in the region. Loss of spawning habitats
seems to be the main cause of salmon decline, and because of excess
fishing capacity, strict fishing limitations are now needed to
protect the stocks. Management is very complex, involving many
stocks that originate from various rivers and under several
management jurisdictions. Chinook and coho salmon are managed by a
Federal fishery management plan, while sockeye, pink, and chum
salmon are managed primarily by the bilateral Pacific Salmon
Commission and state and tribal fishery agencies. 
	Coastal pelagic fishes (Unit 14) provide food, bait, and industrial
fishery products along the Pacific coast. All are fully utilized
except jack mackerel, one of the few underutilized West coast
species. The Pacific sardine population has been increasing after
decades at low abundance levels. 
	The multispecies, multigear groundfish fishery (Unit 15) harvests
a vast array of flatfishes, rockfishes, and other bottom-dwelling
species along the Pacific coast. Management is complex because many
different species may be harvested together, but not all have the
same response to fishing pressure. Pacific whiting dominates the
commercial catch, accounting for about 77% of the 370,954 t of
groundfish landed as the 1990-92 average. Rockfishes and lingcod
also support popular recreational fisheries. Certain stocks, such
as Pacific ocean perch, need to be rebuilt following
overutilization and a period of poor recruitment. The shortbelly
rockfish is the only underutilized groundfish. 
	Of the western Pacific invertebrate fisheries regulated by the
WPFMC (Unit 16), the spiny and slipper lobster fishery is the most
valuable, but landings and effort have dropped substantially since
1989 and the fishery was closed in 1993 to allow rebuilding of
these stocks.
	Western Pacific bottomfishes (Unit 17) are harvested from a variety
of rock and coral habitats around Hawaii and the western Pacific.
The group is managed jointly by the WPFMC, the U.S. Trust
Territories, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands, and
the State of Hawaii. 
	The highly migratory stocks (Unit 18) tunas, billfishes, swordfish,
sharks, and others range the high seas, often beyond U.S. fisheries
management jurisdiction. These stocks represent the largest
non-U.S. share of the total estimated LTPY and RAY (Fig. 3).
International cooperation and consensus on a Pacific-wide plan to
obtain fishery statistics and other vital data for accurate stock
assessments are needed  for effective ocean-wide management of
tropical tunas and other highly migratory pelagic fishes. 

ALASKA LMR'S

	The Alaska region is one of the most productive areas of the
world's oceans, supporting large populations of salmon, groundfish,
crabs, marine mammals, and seabirds. Alaska's fisheries are grouped
under salmon (Unit 13), groundfish (Unit 19), shellfish (Unit 20),
and herring (incorporated in Unit 14). Fishing holds a place as a
tradition and heritage in Alaska. It contributes significantly to
the recreation, food supply, and economy of Alaska; helps reduce
the Nation's trade deficit; and is the largest nongovernment
employer in the state. Alaska's combined LTPY of economically
important species is almost 3.8 million t. The resources are
generally in healthy condition with CPY only 5% below the LTPY. The
RAY has been steady at about 2.4 million t, or 66% of the combined
CPY. However, the extra yield potential cannot yet be fully
utilized.  This is because the harvest has been conservatively
managed to offset lack of data and scientific uncertainty, and is
now managed for additional objectives which include economic,
bycatch, and  protected species considerations. The 1992 ex-vessel
revenue for all of Alaska's LMR's totaled more than $1.185 billion
($155 million for salmon, $725 million for groundfish, and $305
million for shellfish). The value of the fisheries products
exported from the state of Alaska in 1992 was $1.884 billion. In
addition, the state of Washington exported $652 million in
fisheries products in 1992, some of which were harvested in Alaska
waters.
	Alaska salmon stocks have produced bumper harvests in recent years.
The RAY of 321,500 t is 13% above CPY and LTPY. The ex-vessel
revenue from the 1992 catch was $155 million. Five species of
Pacific salmon contribute to this catch. Sockeye salmon is the most
valuable, and in recent years its catch has been the largest of the
five species, followed closely by pink salmon.
	The development of groundfish fisheries off Alaska is perhaps the
greatest success story of the MFCMA. Up to the time of
implementation of the MFCMA in 1977, the groundfish fisheries off
Alaska, except for the domestic Pacific halibut catch, were totally
dominated by foreign fishing. Within a few years, the U.S. domestic
fishery replaced the foreign fisheries. For the Bering Sea/Aleutian
Islands region, the average 1990-92 groundfish catch was about 1.66
million t with ex-vessel revenue in 1992 in excess of $522 million.
For the Gulf of Alaska, the average 1990-92 groundfish catch was
225,100 t, which generated ex-vessel revenues of $133 million in
1992.
	For the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands region, the major species
groups harvested are walleye pollock, Pacific cod, flatfishes, Atka
mackerel, rockfish, and sablefish. Except for Greenland turbot, all
the groundfish are high in abundance and in excellent condition.
Walleye pollock and Pacific cod abundances are much lower than
their recent high levels, but are still close to the levels that
would produce LTPY.
	In the Gulf of Alaska the major species groups harvested are
walleye pollock, Pacific cod, sablefish, flatfishes, and slope
rockfish. Overall abundance of groundfish in the Gulf has been
relatively stable, except for the walleye pollock fishery. Recent
yields of other fisheries are substantially below CPY, indicating
the resources are underutilized, largely because of continued high
abundance of Pacific cod and flatfishes.
	In addition to the general groundfish complex, Pacific halibut is
a groundfish species that has supported an important traditional
fishery for the United States and Canada. This resource is fully
utilized and managed by the International Pacific Halibut
Commission. The resource is generally in good condition with recent
U.S. catches averaging 31,000 t worth $70 million ex-vessel.
The king and Tanner (or snow) crab fisheries are currently the most
important shellfish fisheries in Alaska. King crab landings are
less than half the LTPY due to low stock levels. Tanner crab
landings are more than double the LTPY owing to very high stock
levels. Total 1992 crab catches were worth $305 million, with
one-fourth of this due to king crabs and the rest to Tanner crabs.

U.S. NEARSHORE LMR'S

	It is difficult to assess the status of all nearshore species (Unit
21) around the entire U.S. coast because they come under varied
management and data collection regimes. No firm estimates exist for
LTPY or CPY because of the diverse nature of these coastal and
estuarine species and their fisheries. Management authority is
typically a regional, state, and/or local responsibility because
most fisheries occur within the three-mile interior boundary to the
Federally-controlled EEZ. But, generally, Atlantic oysters, hard
and softshell clams, bay scallops, and abalones are overutilized,
at least in part of their ranges. Fully utilized resources include
Pacific shrimp and clams, Dungeness crab, blue crab, and calico
scallop. The status of 20 of the 36 stocks included in this unit
cannot be determined from the existing data. The1990-92 averaged
RAY is conservatively estimated at 221,683 t. The commercial
ex-vessel revenue from all nearshore resources is about $376
million, which does not include the substantial recreational
component.

MARINE MAMMALS AND SEA TURTLES

	The MMPA and ESA require regular status updates for marine mammal
and sea turtle populations. The current state of our knowledge
allows only 25 of 150 populations or stocks to be assigned
abundance trend estimates (Table 2). The rest are of unknown status
(particularly the Atlantic and Pacific dolphin and porpoise
stocks).  The increase in the number of stocks reported in Table 2
over prior years is due to the breakout of regional stocks for many
species.  Previous editions of  Our Living Oceans  had lumped these
regional stocks under single species headings.

Marine Mammals

	At least 35 species of marine mammals range the western North
Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, including 32 species of
whales, dolphins, and porpoises, two seal species (harbor and gray
seals), and the West Indian manatee. Unit 22 considers 53 species
stocks, but only simple abundance estimates are known for 20
stocks. Of these, seven species found off the east coast and Gulf
of Mexico are listed as endangered under ESA (i.e., sei, sperm,
blue, fin, humpback, North Atlantic right whales, and West Indian
manatee). Also, following a 1987-88 mass die-off, there is serious
concern about the status of coastal and offshore bottlenose
dolphins in the Mid-Atlantic. 
	There are far too few data on other stocks to evaluate their
status. Abundance trends are known for only the northeast stock of
harbor seal, gray seal, and the manatee (Table 2).
At least 50 marine mammal species (Unit 23) occur in U.S. waters of
the eastern North Pacific Ocean and eastern tropical Pacific,
including 36 species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises, 11 species
of seals and sea lions, walrus, polar bear, and sea otter. Simple
abundance estimates are known for 73 stocks. Of these, nine species
are listed as endangered or threatened under ESA guidelines.
	Although the data are incomplete, right whales in the eastern North
Pacific are at critically low levels and nearly extinct; only 5-7
sightings have been made in the past 25 years. The eastern North
Pacific or  California  stock of gray whales is believed to have
recovered to 21,000 animals, near to or surpassing its historical
abundance level. Moreover, south of Alaska some marine mammals have
also recovered or are recovering to near historical abundance
levels (i.e., California sea lion and the northern elephant seal).
As with the Atlantic species, data are insufficient to assess the
status of most Pacific whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and
abundance trends are known for only 16 stocks (Table 2).

Sea Turtles

	Six species of sea turtles (Unit 24) regularly spend all or part of
their lives off the U.S. Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and in U.S.
territorial waters of the Caribbean and western Pacific Ocean: The
Kemp's ridley, olive ridley (Pacific only), loggerhead, green,
hawksbill, and leatherback. Limited assessment data for 11 stocks
exist for about half of the turtle species in U.S. waters, but
studies of nesting densities provide a partial picture of
population trends. The Kemp's ridley population has experienced a
major decline since 1947 from an estimated 40,000 nesting females
to less than 800 nests per year between 1978 and 1988. Loggerhead
nesting populations have declined over the last 20-30 years in the
northern portion of their range (e.g., Georgia and South Carolina).
	On the Atlantic beaches of south Florida, however, loggerheads have
not shown a decline, and might even be increasing. Green turtle
nestings on Florida beaches are low, but they increased between
1971 and 1989. Leatherbacks nest on beaches of the Virgin Islands
and Puerto Rico, but nesting records are too few to detect trends.
Under the Endangered Species Act, all marine turtles are listed
either as endangered or threatened (Table 2). The NMFS has
authority to protect and conserve marine turtles in the seas and
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service maintains authority while
turtles are on land. The Kemp's ridley, hawksbill, and leatherback
turtles are listed as endangered throughout their ranges. The
loggerhead and olive ridley turtles are listed as threatened
throughout their U.S. ranges, as is the green turtle, except the
Florida nesting population which is listed as endangered.